Political advance for the French colonies was naturally seen in terms of increased African participation in French political life. Despite the assassination of Mondlane in 1969, a new phase of the war opened in 1971 under the leadership of Samora Machel, and by 1974 Frelimo controlled much of northern and central Mozambique. Independence and conflict [71] At 18 years old, she attempted to flee the country and join FRELIMO in Tanzania. The sanctions closed Zambias major trade and transportation routes through Rhodesia, and, although alternate routes were established through Angola and new east-west lines through Tanzania were constructed by the mid 1970s, subsequent armed incursions from Rhodesia and South Africa and continued warfare in Angola and Mozambique disrupted the costly new trade and transportation lines. Language has been used by western colonial powers to divide territories and create new identities which has led to conflicts and tensions between African nations. The British funding policy, initiated in 1929, of providing the funds needed for colonial development was greatly expanded in the 1940s and extended to social as well as economic plans. Harold MacMillan, British Prime The powers of chiefs were bolstered and discriminatory legislation increased. Long governed as part of South Africa, in 1949 South West Africa became South Africas fifth province, and its white population was swollen by about 3,000 immigrants. Ikhshidid State of Egypt, Syria and Hejaz, autonomous state within the Abbasid Caliphate (935969) Michalopoulos, Stelios; Papaioannou, Elias (2020-03-01). Source for information on Independence and Decolonization, Middle In contrast, one of the last British colonies in Africa to gain its independence was Zimbabwe in 1980. All colonies must be free from foreign imperialist control, whether political or economic. Two years after becoming a republic, Chad won independence on August 11, 1960. The early kingdoms and empires of the western Sudan, The wider influence of the Sudanic kingdoms, The Islamic revolution in the western Sudan, The Guinea coastlands and the Europeans (180779), Initial difficulty of European administration, Decolonization and the regaining of independence, The formation of African independence movements. By 196162 the nationalists had been released and new constitutions drawn up, and in 1963 the federation was dissolved. Belgium controlled several territories and concessions during the colonial era, principally the Belgian Congo (modern DRC) from 1908 to 1960 and Ruanda-Urundi (modern Rwanda and Burundi) from 1922 to 1962. [60], Nationalist and Independence movements throughout Africa have been predominantly led by men, however, women also held important roles. for the viewpoint from London and Paris see Rudolf von Albertini, Ferguson, Ed, and A. Adu Boahen. Independence and Decolonization, Middle East The fight for independence in Africa - BBC Bitesize This decision was upheld by the International Court of Justice at The Hague in 1971. In 1976 the Transkei homeland was given independence by the South African government, and grants of independence followed over the next four years to Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, and Venda, though their independence was not internationally recognized. Ethnic and racial distinctions among whites, Africans, Coloureds, and Indians were more strictly defined and policed. We affirm the right of all colonial peoples to control their own destiny. [24], Colonial economic exploitation involved the siphoning off of resource extraction (such as mining) profits to European shareholders at the expense of internal development, causing major local socioeconomic grievances. Portuguese withdrawal also led to Mozambiques independence under a Frelimo government in June 1975, but the flight of skilled expatriates and Mozambiques proximity to hostile regimes in South Africa and Rhodesia caused immediate problems. During the second world war, some local African industries and towns expanded when U-boats patrolling the Atlantic Ocean reduced raw material transportation to Europe. Jernimo, Miguel Bandeira, and Antnio Costa Pinto, eds. The constitution eventually adopted in 1946 was less liberal to Africans than they had been led to expect. The former self-governing colony would not be recognized as an independent state until the aftermath of the, Botswana Day Holiday is the second day of the two-day celebration of Botswana's independence. Kampala East Africa Education Publisher ltd. [Boahen, A. Under Hendrik Verwoerd, who served as minister of Native Affairs and later as prime minister (195866), apartheid took shape. [22] Furthermore, [61] Womens roles in independence movements were diverse and varied by each country. African economies were structured to benefit the coloniser and any surplus was likely to be drained, thereby stifling capital accumulation. Dominated by a modernizing elite, the countrys economy flourished with the expansion of cattle ranching and diamond, nickel, and copper mining. 8th10th Dynasties of Ancient Egypt, the First Intermediate Period of Egypt: divided in many states (21812055 BC) However, there was trouble in French Somaliland (Djibouti), which became independent in 1977. Various attempts by the British to resolve the conflictincluding a referendum on a new constitution in 1972all failed, and by the late 1970s the Rhodesian army and the guerrillas pursued the war with increasing ferocity, both sides often intimidating and torturing recruits in the rural areas. Exarchate of Africa, part of the Eastern Roman Empire (590-698) This is followed by France with 28, Spain with 17, The Soviet Union with 16, Portugal with 7 and the USA with 5. Dissatisfaction with the wartime cabinet and fears of urban African militants lay behind the victory of the Reunited National Party (later the National Party [NP]), which ran on a platform of apartheid (apartness) in the white elections of 1948. In 1978 a new constitution ensured the continued power of the monarchy in alliance with selected chiefs. [14] This led to a deeper political awareness and the expectation of greater respect and self-determination, which was left largely unfulfilled. Paradoxically, World War II and the rise of more radical African political movements initially consolidated white rule in Southern Africa, as evidenced by the victory of the predominantly Afrikaner National Party in South Africa, the creation of the Central African Federation by Britain, and renewed white immigration to the Rhodesias, Angola, Mozambique, and South West Africa. The crackdown set off further disorder, and in the northern territories the British were persuaded to move toward decolonization. [35], On 6 March 1957, Ghana (formerly the Gold Coast) became the first sub-Saharan African country to gain its independence from European colonisation. In South West Africa, too, the National Party increased its control in the 1950s and 60s. Relatively few Africans started up the French educational ladderschool attendance by the mid-1950s was some 340,000, about 1.7 percent of the total populationbut those who did found themselves in a system identical with that in France. In Swaziland, where the presence of white settlers and South African and international economic interests held up full independence until 1968, the Swazi king Sobhuza II emerged as head of state through the overwhelming electoral majority of his Imbokodvo National Movement in the rural areas. 18th20th Dynasties of Ancient Egypt, reunified as a New Kingdom of Egypt (15501069 BC) The following were German African protectorates: This is a list of all present sovereign states in Africa and their predecessors. Decolonization Some territories, however, saw great death tolls as a result of their fight for independence. Part of the Kingdom of Mauretania (capital city in Volubilis, located in modern day Morocco)(3rd century BC 25 BC) In 1929 Britain had enacted the first Colonial Development Act, providing that small amounts of British government money could be used for colonial economic development, thus breaking the deadlock by which the only colonial governments that could embark on development programs to increase the wealth of their subjects, and to improve their own revenues, were those that already commanded sufficient revenue to pay for the programs or to service the loans the programs required. Voices from the Past Part of the Abbasid Caliphate (750868) By the late 1960s the few remaining nonindependent African countries were all in settler-dominated Southern Africa. [Ethiopia, Liberia, and Modernisation theory posits that colonial powers built infrastructure to integrate Africa into the world economy; however, this was built mainly for extraction purposes. As a leader, Machel created health centres, schools, and daycare facilities to help people in the liberated zones of Mozambique. From the date of independence to Ben Bella's inauguration. Some colonies chose instead to remain part of France, under the status of overseas dpartements (territories). For all the apparent success of its social engineering policies, by the late 1960s cracks had begun to appear in the National Partys edifice of control. The Union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar Act, 1964 (Act No. The emergence of these nationalist movements profoundly disturbed the federal authorities. [67], Popularly known as Bibi Titi, Bibi Titi Mohamed was a prominent figure in African women's politics and the independence movement in Tanganyika, mobilizing women to join the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) political party.[66]. Center of the Kingdom of Mauretania (capital city in Cherchell, located in modern day Algeria)(25 BC-42 AD) In June 1976 the governments determination to impose Afrikaans on Black schools provided the flashpoint for prolonged countrywide protests, touched off after police fired on demonstrating students in Soweto (a Black township outside Johannesburg). She was subsequently caught and imprisoned for six months. WebThroughout the 1950s and 1960s, many African countries gained their independence from Britain. Mahamane Ousmane of the Social Democratic Convention became president in the countrys first multiparty presidential Large numbers of Black troops were recruited, and villagers supporting the guerrillas were subjected to savage reprisals. Africans in the north, however, feared that federation would prevent political advance and extend Southern Rhodesias racist laws. (1990) Africa Under Colonial Domination, Volume 7], Bertocchia, G. & Canova, F., (2002) Did colonization matter for growth? Part of the Exarchate of Africa (590698) (a division of the Eastern Roman Empire) This event transformed political consciousness beyond the youthalthough they remained in the forefront of protest thereafterwith far-reaching consequences. Ptolemaic Kingdom (33230 BC) Internal dissent had been crushed by 1964, and Frelimo launched a guerrilla war against targets in northern Mozambique, claiming to have established its own administrative, educational, and economic networks in the northern districts. Through the 1960s and early 70s Jonathan was South Africas most reliable regional ally, but he subsequently became an outspoken critic of South African policies. One after another, most of the colonies were occupied by foreign powers (Japan in Indochina, Britain in Syria, Lebanon, and Madagascar, the United States and Britain in Morocco and Algeria, and Germany and Italy in Tunisia). After joining FRELIMO, Machel soon became the leader of the womens wing, Destacamento Feminino. Women in Nigeria played a significant role during the movement for national independence. She used this as an opportunity to educate women on the importance of independence and decolonisation. Smith, eds. Africa Proconsularis, province of the Roman Republic (later the Roman Empire) (146 BC-395 AD) South Africa did not sign, because of the Although initially Zambia was as tied economically to Rhodesia and the Portuguese colonies, Kaunda backed the resistance movements there and supported United Nations (UN) sanctions against the white government in Rhodesia. Churches were radicalized, large numbers of community organizations sprang up, and there was a resurgence of support for the banned ANC, particularly among young people. Wood, Sarah L. "How Empires Make Peripheries: 'Overseas France' in Contemporary History. Frank Myers, "Harold Macmillan's" Winds of Change" Speech: A Case Study in the Rhetoric of Policy Change.". These efforts also helped change American policy towards South Africa, as seen with the passage of the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986. In some sectors the labour activism caused African wages to rise more quickly than white wages. The French were not willing to let their colony go that easily, and the Provisional Government of the French Republic send the Far East Expeditionary Corps to try and get Indochina back under French rule. Select all the correct answers. Which THREE African countries gained independence after In Botswana and Swaziland, modern nationalist movements emerged somewhat later and were dominated by members of the royal families, who were able to perpetuate monarchical domination quite effectively through the ballot box. History High School answered expert verified Which THREE African countries gained independence after 1945? Province of Egypt (324641) (part of the Eastern Roman Empire) Kenya (former British Kenya), see Mau Mau Uprising. The political crisis in France caused the collapse of the Fourth Republic, as Charles de Gaulle returned to power in 1958 and finally pulled the French soldiers and settlers out of Algeria by 1962. liberia democratic republic of congo ghana south africa algeria Abolished its commonwealth monarchy exactly two years later. After the war, some Britons considered African colonies to be childish and immature; British colonisers introduced democratic government at local levels in the colonies. The economy grew dramatically, increasing the mobility of Black workers and creating an urban-based Black intelligentsia for the first time. In 1948 universities were established in the Gold Coast and Nigeria; by 1960 the former territory had about 4,500 university graduates and the latter more than 5,000. After being released from prison, Nkrumah founded the Convention People's Party (CPP), which launched a wide-scale campaign in support of independence with the slogan "Self Government Now! Jonathan led the BNP to a narrow victory in the 1965 elections; Lesotho achieved independence in 1966. WebIndependence and Decolonization, Middle EastIn the decades immediately following the conclusion of World War II, European formal empires in the Middle East began to unravel. Roger Louis, eds. Part of the Fatimid Caliphate (909973) Banda and Kaunda differed greatly in their relations with the liberation struggles in the rest of Southern Africa. [48] Unrest in Haiphong, Indochina, in November 1945 was met by a warship bombarding the city. The idea of a one-party state was dropped amid calls for reparations for the massacres in Matabeleland and for greater public accountability. There followed a military dictatorship headed first by Seyni Kountch (until his death in 1987) and then by Ali Seibou. 17/80 (2017). Part of the Carthaginian Empire (814202 BC) During the late 1970s Malawi, long believed to have successful rural development policies, also faced economic crisis. "Portuguese tropical geography and decolonization in Africa: the case of Mozambique. Whites, who constituted a declining proportion of the population, could not meet the demand for skilled and semiskilled labour. Independence and civil war 1960 was the big year for African independence. In 1973 the UN appointed its own commissioner for Namibia (as the territory became known in the 1970s); despite the presence of the UN commissioner and the intensification of SWAPOs military campaign, it was only after Angolan independence in 1975 and increasing international pressure that South Africas policies began to change. The French Union, included in the Constitution of 1946, nominally replaced the former colonial empire, but officials in Paris remained in full control. The date 24 September 1973 (when the, Although the fight for Cape Verdean independence. The colony was founded in 1908 following the transfer of sovereignty from the Congo Free State, which was the personal property of Belgium's king, Leopold II. Coverage of the regions physical and human geography can be found in the article Africa. Although independence was not encouraged, arrangements between these leaders and the colonial powers developed,[9] and such figures as Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya), Kwame Nkrumah (Gold Coast, now Ghana), Julius Nyerere (Tanganyika, now Tanzania), Lopold Sdar Senghor (Senegal), Nnamdi Azikiwe (Nigeria), and Flix Houphout-Boigny (Cte d'Ivoire) came to lead the struggles for African nationalism. I used to tell them these things every time and so they became interested[64], After being granted independence in 1960, Ekpo participated in the Constitutional Conferences in Lagos and London. 2022, from https://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/uncovering-josina-machel-obscurity-african-women-hidden-his-story-ama-biney-3-april-2014, Independent Benin unilaterally annexed Portuguese, UN General Assembly Resolution 34/37 and UN General Assembly Resolution 35/19, UN resolution 2145 terminated South Africa's mandate over Namibia, making it, The Techiman-Bono of Ghana: an ethnography of an Akan society Kendall/Hunt Pub. Nigerias program, with a contribution from Britain of 42 percent, proposed to spend $220 milliononly about $7 per capita. As a warrant chief, Ekpo passed a law that required police to employ more women in Enugu and Lagos. "Historical Legacies and African Development. And we cant get independence if you dont want to join the party. Although South Africa did not recognize the authority of the UN, the issue of South African rule in South West Africa came before the UN regularly, and in 1966 the UN called for complete South African withdrawal. TIMELINE OF INDEPENDENCE 47 countries gain independence between 1957 and 1990 There were to be many more independence days, celebrations, national anthems and hopeful speeches. Some countries achieved - The Soviet Union supplied weapons to the MPLA, which was aided by Cuban troops. In addition, the mandatory or trustee powers are mentioned for territories that were, The dates of decolonisation for territories annexed by or integrated into previously decolonised independent countries are given in separate notes, as are dates when a, For countries that became independent either as a, The Union of South Africa was constituted through the, Although the leaders of the 1952 revolution (. Once these two areas were secure, it was the intent of British colonialists such as Cecil Rhodes to establish a Cape-Cairo railway and to exploit mineral and agricultural resources. In Botswana, which achieved its independence in 1966, Seretse Khamathe grandson of the Ngwato chief Khama IIIemerged as the first president. [18] President Roosevelt regarded it as applicable across the world. Sweden temporarily controlled several settlements on the Gold Coast (present Ghana) since 22 April 1650, but lost the last when on 20 April 1663 Fort Carlsborg and the capital Fort Christiansborg were seized by Denmark. She joined the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) in 1954. [20]The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, three years after the end of World War II, recognised all people as being born free and equal.[21]. In February 1951, the CPP gained political power by winning 34 of 38 elected seats, including one for Nkrumah who was imprisoned at the time. United Arab Republic (In union with Syria) (19581971) Praetorian prefecture of Africa, part of the Eastern Roman Empire (534-590) Women are the power in this world. However, the French Community dissolved itself amid the Algerian War; almost all of the other African colonies were granted independence in 1960, following local referendums. Even before World War II, Northern Rhodesian whites had begun to consider federation with Southern Rhodesia as a response to growing African assertiveness, and support for federation increased after the war. Part of the Rashidun Caliphate (641661) Although, Some territories changed hands multiple times, so only the last colonial power is mentioned in the list. [citation needed], Historian James Meriweather argues that American policy towards Africa was characterized by a middle road approach, which supported African independence but also reassured European colonial powers that their holdings could remain intact. Nigeria, the Belgian Congo (renamed Zaire, now the Democratic Republic of Congo), Kenya, and others soon followed. Riots broke out in Accra and though Nkrumah and other Ghanaian leaders were temporarily imprisoned, the event became a catalyst for the independence movement. In 1945, Ekpo became involved in politics after her husband, Dr. John Udo Ekpo, became dissatisfied with the colonial administration's treatment of indigenous Nigerian doctors. It subsequently confronted multiple crises, as Black opposition again broke to the surface with the emergence of the Black Consciousness movement in 1968, led by the charismatic activist Stephen Biko. Italy, a colonial power, lost its African Empire, Italian East Africa, Italian Ethiopia, Italian Eritrea, Italian Somalia and Italian Libya, as a result of World War II. Malawi thus became the foundation of South Africas outward-looking foreign policy in Africa. Opposition leaders fled, and by the late 1970s chronic warfare had erupted in Lesothos northeastern mountains. Alarm at the NP victory in South Africa also stimulated Britain into federating its south-central African territories as a bulwark against Afrikaner nationalism. She was arrested multiple times for instigating these rallies against British colonization. "[38] Heightened nationalism within the country grew their power and the political party widely expanded. ", Seidler, Valentin. Nevertheless, in the early years of independence, Frelimo abolished many of the most hated aspects of colonial rule and greatly increased the availability of welfare resources for the Black populace. The FNLAs internal support had dwindled to a few Kongo groups, but it had strong links with the regime in Zaire and was well armed; it thus made a bid to seize Luanda by force. Some reflection of this view was seen in the League of Nations and the system of mandates applied to the former German colonies. [12][13] Veterans from over 1.3 million African troops participated in World War II and fought in both European and Asian theatres of war. The 1970s were a time of escalating wars of liberation in Mozambique, Angola, Namibia, and Zimbabwe. [70] This wing of FRELIMO provided women with political education and military training. Before the discovery by the Portuguese in the 15th century, the archipelago was uninhabited, The territory of South Sudan has been inhabited since the, The territory of Uganda has been inhabited since the, Southern regions of what is today Zambia was part of the, Southern regions of what is today Zimbabwe was part of the, Brennan, James R. "The Cold War battle over global news in East Africa: decolonization, the free flow of information, and the media business, 1960-1980.".
