Passive Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. 2022 Jun 15;10(1):151. doi: 10.1186/s40359-022-00861-1. For instance, we might expect less sunlight during a storm spell to result in more sedentary time at home, and less time engaging in physical activity outdoors. >> We also include the dependent variables in our imputation procedure, as suggested by Young and Johnson (2010). /Height 42 2022 Mar 16;19(6):3543. doi: 10.3390/ijerph19063543. The mixed leisure type, in which active, passive, and social leisure activities are mixed, showed a decrease of12.7% from 37.5% before Corona 19 to 32.8% after Corona 19, and the percentage difference was -4.8%p. Sunlight also plays a key role in the formation of ozone (O3) from the environmental precursors of volatile organic compounds (VOC), carbon dioxide (CO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and these chemical reactions are accelerated in higher temperatures. The negative effects of passive recreational activity are: It's important for humanity to have an understanding of nature, and sports or other outdoor activities Though vitamin D is integral to skeletal health, it does play a role in neurological development and its deficiency tends to be associated with neuropsychiatric disorders (Eyles et al. Scientists from the Southeast Fisheries Science Center have deployed passive acoustic recorders to monitor endangered North Atlantic right whales in the Southeast for the 2023 calving season. Still, we suspect the reason may lie not in the structure of the data but in how math and verbal ability change over the course of the school year. Related research also highlights a growing SES disparity in adolescent obesity prevalence that is masked by a recent trend of overall stabilization, consistent with gaps in relevant time use (Frederick, Snellman, and Putnam 2014). For instance, black-white and college-no college gaps in math performance and sedentary behavior shrank from 2007 to 2014. Keywords: Evidence from the Tea Party Movement, Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, Racial Pigmentation and the Cutaneous Synthesis of Vitamin D, Emerging Roles for Folate and Related B-Vitamins in Brain Health Across the Lifecycle, Tracing the U.S. Deficit in PISA Reading Skills to Early Childhood: Evidence from the United States and Canada, Seasonality in Human Cognitive Brain Responses, Socioeconomic Correlates of Sedentary Behavior in Adolescents: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis, Economic Shocks and Civil Conflict: An Instrumental Variables Approach, Media Use and ADHD-Related Behaviors in Children and Adolescents: A Meta-Analysis, Increasing Ambient Temperature Reduces Emotional Wellbeing, Ultraviolet Photodegradation of Folic Acid, Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology, Effects of Prenatal Exposure to Air Pollutants (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons) on the Development of Brain White Matter, Cognition, and Behavior in Later Childhood, Accumulating Advantages over Time: Family Experiences and Social Class Inequality in Academic Achievement, Vitamin D-Binding Protein and Vitamin D Status of Black Americans and White Americans, Family Size, Cognitive Outcomes, and Familial Interaction in Stable, Two-Parent Families: United States, 19972002, The Acute Effect of Local Homicides on Childrens Cognitive Performance, A Survey of Weak Instruments and Weak Identification in Generalized Method of Moments, Journal of Business and Economic Statistics, The Effects of Old and New Media on Childrens Weight, Social Mobility in an Era of Family Instability and Complexity, ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Infant Media Exposure and Toddler Development, Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Scaling the Digital Divide: Home Computer Technology and Student Achievement, What Money Doesnt Buy: Class Resources and Childrens Participation in Organized Extracurricular Activities, Imputing the Missing Ys: Implications for Survey Producers and Survey Users, Childrens Television Viewing and Cognitive Outcomes, Temperature and the Allocation of Time: Implications for Climate Change. Clifford, Angela, Linda Lang, Ruoling Chen, Kaarin J. Anstey, and Anthony Seaton. If higher-SES children are watching National Geographic and their peers are watching daytime talk shows, one might expect a qualitatively different effect. What are the negative effects of passive recreational activity? eCollection 2014. McGarel, C., J. J. 2016). activities BMC Psychol. Active recreation Definition 2020 Jun 19;17(12):4402. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17124402. 2015). Effects of Recreational and Entertainment Activities on The differences in the effects of physical and outdoor activity are more difficult to speculate on because all children exhibit relatively low levels of either behavior. Res Gerontol Nurs. *:JZjz ? Int J Qual Stud Health Well-being. WebA growing body of research evidence indicates that pre-event static stretching of the prime movers may actually have a negative effect on force production, power performance, strength endurance, reaction time, and running speed (4, 10, 11, 19, 34, 40, 41). Finally, we control for educational time, consisting of the total time in school and doing homework summed together. Careers. In figure 1, we compare the sunniest (Arizona) and cloudiest (Vermont) places to the national average in daily insolation over the same time periods, and over the course of the year. Estimates based on a convergence in active and sedentary time use as the school year progresses and the weather gets sunnier would be biased if the real driver of improving test scores is simply having had a longer time in school since the prior summer within each wave. /Length 21 0 R National Library of Medicine Front Public Health. Moreover, even if behaviors are affecting cognitive performance through a more nebulous channel than raw intellectual ability (i.e., through more robust executive function and impulse control), ultimately they still produce measurable effects on assessment and can be considered net positive or negative. The extant evidence illustrates that activity (and inactivity) may be related both to physical changes in the brain itself, along with cognitive improvements that can positively affect test performance through numerous channelsincluding those that relate to behavior (e.g., ability to focus) rather than intellectual skill per se. For total screen time, the effect size is a more modest reduction of about one-fifth of a standard deviation with each additional daily hour. 2015). In figure 3, we compare time use in the original CDS cohort we use in this analysis (19972007) to the newer 2014 module. Researchers have also illustrated related links between seasonal warm-weather allergens and decreased performance on high-stakes exams (Bensnes 2016). Psychological Restoration through Indoor and Outdoor Leisure Kalil, Ariel, Kathleen M. Ziol-Guest, Rebecca M. Ryan, and Anna J. Markowitz. Negative 1369 Significant baseline differences among high- and low-SES toddlers have been found as early as 18 months (Fernald, Marchman, and Wiesleder 2013), and indeed may be large enough in magnitude to largely account for the lag in US educational assessment compared to similar industrialized countries (Merry 2013). We find that weighting our data do not affect our estimates. WebRecreation, passive means low intensity recreation activities which have limited noise and light impacts and are minimally disruptive to the natural environment. The collection of data used in this study was partly supported by the National Institutes of Health under grant number R01-HD069609 and the National Science Foundation under award number 1157698. Other work finds that temperatures above 70F tend to induce negative emotions, while even particularly cold weather (<20F) is associated with higher subjective well-being (Noelke et al. We find evidence that physical and outdoor activity positively influence math performance, while sedentary behavior and screen time exhibit the opposite effect. Yet other research which specifically examines the impact of educational programming (e.g., Sesame Street) finds positive and significant effects, signaling the importance of content (Mares and Pan 2013). His other interests include housing affordability and the growth and development of cities and the regions they anchor. Zimmerman, Frederick J., and Dimitri A. Christakis. Our research suffers from various limitations that render our results provisional. Here, we exploit the robust association between weather patterns and a select subset of leisure activities in attempting to draw a clearer connection between behavior and cognition, a crucially important factor in child development and achievement. endobj 2013). endobj Brown, Bruno P. Nunes, Inacio C M Silva, and Pedro C. Hillal. How Many Imputations Are Really Needed? (We use sedentary behavior as an example because it is an umbrella category that includes screen time, television, etc.) Buchmann, Claudia, and Thomas A. DiPrete. With respect to screen-time behaviors, we also cannot account for the content of what children were watching or what games they were playing, which could also influence our results. For instance, girls are over three times more sensitive to the effects of screen time than boys, yet the latter consume 2540 percent more depending on the wave. Borghans, Lex, Bart H H Golsteyn, James Heckman, and John E. Humphries. Bailey, Martha J., and Susan M. Dynarski. endobj Another consideration is the effect sizes of behavior on assessment we find among African Americans compared to whites, which could reflect differential vitamin D absorption because of the protective effects of melanin (Matsuoka et al. Our stratified results indicate that children from less educated mothers and girls seem to be most sensitive to the effects of active and passive forms of leisure. Cutaneous exposure to ultraviolet light has long been recognized as degrading folic acidor B9, an essential vitamin that acts as a precursor to DNA methylationin both clinical trials and in vivo (Off et al. Frontiers | Physical Activity, Inactivity, and Sedentary Behaviors Recreational Activities on Source Water Strategies that decrease sedentary time and promote physical activity in its place may have a particularly robust impact on confronting these pernicious inequalities of achievement. This site needs JavaScript to work properly. Dalton Conley is the Henry Putnam University Professor in Sociology and a faculty affiliate at the Office of Population Research and the Center for Health and Wellbeing. Whether this is more purely physiological in origin or a reflection of the different psychological effects certain behaviors have on development is an open question, and fertile ground for future research. Do Summer Time-Use Gaps Vary by Socioeconomic Status? Active ageing and quality of life: factors associated with participation in leisure activities among institutionalized older adults, with and without dementia. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted In this sense, playing outside or watching television can be seen as extensions of the formal-informal dichotomy many sociologists sketch out in examining patterns in achievement and childhood trajectory. For the purposes of Effect Alexander, Karl L., Doris R. Entwisle, and Linda S. Olson. Kent, Shia T., Leslie A. McClure, William L. Crosson, Donna K. Arnett, Virginia G. Wadley, and Nalini Sathiakumar. To capture the effect of sunlight on behavior, we use daily historical records of insolation (sunlight measured in kilojoules per square meter at the county level), collected as part of the North America Land Data Assimilation System (NLDAS) and disseminated by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) Wonder database (Centers for Disease Control 2017). Effect sizes are at least twice as large for girls compared to boys, with all activities exhibiting significant relationships with math assessment except for video games (table 3). The PSID is a nationally representative, longitudinal study, with respondents surveyed annually from 1968 to 1997, and biennially thereafter up to the present. Yet these cognitive improvements may be attributable merely to the timing of the test further along in the school year in the second wave, and the substantial accumulation of knowledge children exhibit by virtue of the additive gains they experience as the school year progresses (Fitzpatrick, Grissmer, and Hastedt 2011). The site is secure. It may be the case that population-level estimates (i.e., average treatment effects) are lower than what we find here, if, for example, there are declining marginal returns to going outside for outdoor-oriented children, or adaptations to staying indoors for their indoor-oriented counterparts. He is also interested in mapping the genetic architecture of phenotypic plasticity, and characterizing social and genetic sorting as distinct processes. Graham, J. W., Allison E. Olchowski, and Tamika D. Gilreath. However, recreation stems from a basic human need for activities that are essential to the mental and physical well-being of the Methods: Using the weather as an instrument, as we have described, also has its pitfalls and potential biases. We also include a five-year rolling average of real family income preceding the measurement year, and the poverty rate of the home census tract as a proxy for neighborhood conditions. We also find substantial effect sizes for television and gaming, with each additional hour resulting in a loss of 38 and 63 percent of a standard deviation, respectively. endobj 2014). However, in high-performance sports, minimum performance differences can have a major impact on athletes success in competition. We then present stratified results, with the clearest differences based on caregivers education (in our data, almost always mothers)with strong effects of active and passive leisure on cognition evident among the children of high school graduates, and smaller, statistically insignificant relationships among those with college-educated parents. Disadvantages Of Recreation We suspect behavior may be less sensitive to weather conditions among the children of college-educated caregivers because they are engaged or enrolled in more formalized activities that would be more likely to take place rain or shine (Lareau 2000, 2002; Weininger, Lareau, and Conley 2015). active leisure activities; life satisfaction; older adults; passive leisure activities. Establishing the real-world significance and construct validity of cognition as it is commonly measured in aptitude tests is less straightforward than it may seem. In our verbal outcome specifications, time in school is highly significant in each. /Filter /DCTDecode Our stratified results based on imputed data, however, deliver larger coefficients and smaller p values for the black subsample, and effect sizes are about 3060 percent larger compared to whites in those specifications depending on the behavior (online appendix table S6). Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. 4.3 Passive Recreation - University of Michigan School for Chay, Kenneth Y., Jonathan Guryan, and Bhashkar Mazumder. Yet other experimental research has found that even very short exposures (i.e., minutes, not hours) to high-intensity media can depress the executive functioning in children (Lillard and Peterson 2011), negatively mirroring related RCT study findings in physical activity. Zhao M, Wang Y, Wang S, Yang Y, Li M, Wang K. Int J Environ Res Public Health. Results: The results showed that participation in passive leisure activities, such reading, talking on the telephone and watching TV/listening to the radio, is more frequent among older adults (P = 0.000). sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal Our results also have implications for achievement gaps documented in the social science literature. There are three possible sources of variation in sunlight from wave to wave in our data: 1) the effect of children moving to a qualitatively different climate across waves (e.g., testing in May 1997 and 2002, but having moved from Vermont to Arizona in the interim); 2) the broader changes in weather due to taking the test in different seasonal conditions (e.g., testing in December 1997 and June 2002); and 3) the random weather perturbations that the jagged edges of the curves in figure 1 represent (e.g., engaging in activity and testing during a seasonably sunny few days in May 1997, and then again during a frost in May 2002). Geriatr Gerontol Int 2018; 18: 380-386. Recent research suggests that while there does appear to be a seasonal pattern to cognitive processing presumably based in circadian rhythms, these do not manifest in actual differences in measurable ability (Meyer et al. /Filter /DCTDecode Direct correspondence to Tom Laidley, 295 Lafayette St, New York, NY 10012; tel. FOIA By exploiting the plausibly exogenous variation in weather on the day of measured activity, we can deliver estimates of how more active and passive forms of leisurewhich are particularly sensitive to weather and sunlightcontribute to shaping cognitive assessment over time. Parents and children listed the childs activities over 24 hours in an open-ended diary with no predetermined minimum time increment on a randomly selected day during the school week and weekend in each CDS wave. Physical activity lowers blood pressure , which is one of the major contributing factors to cardiovascular events. Still, children today seem to be exhibiting similarly low levels of both physical and outdoor activities as their peers did in 2007. /Type /XObject We also thank the editors of Social Forces and the two anonymous reviewers for their helpful guidance and critiques. We found parental education to be so stable across waves as to function as time invariant, and thus dropped it from the specifications. We use this proxy for weather to instrument for the variation in physical, outdoor, sedentary, and screen-time behaviors based on CDS time diaries. Specifications that were not bounded by lag time restrictions produced substantively similar results, but with smaller coefficients and greater precision, consistent with the growth in sample size and reduced signal after including cases where testing substantially lags or precedes treatment. In addition to differences in cognitive performance, some cross-sectional and RCT studies also find physical, structural differences in brain integrity between more and less fit children (e.g., white or gray matter volume) (Erickson, Hillman, and Kramer 2015). Int J Environ Res Public Health. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (, Racialization and Reproduction: Asian Immigrants and Californias Twentieth-Century Eugenic Sterilization Program, Review of Prisons and Health in the Age of Mass Incarceration, Review of: Making Gender Salient: From Gender Quota Laws to Policy, Review of Why Baby Boomers Turned from Religion: Shaping Belief and Belonging, 19452021, Review of Liberty Road: Black Middle-Class Suburbs and the Battle Between Civil Rights and Neoliberalism, Childhood Inequality, Time Use, and Cognitive Growth, Cognition: Practical Significance and Empirical Measurement, Supplementary material is available at Social Forces online, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/, Receive exclusive offers and updates from Oxford Academic, Copyright 2023 University of North Carolina Chapel Hill. Accessibility Children experience systematic differences in their exposure to formal academic instruction due to the geographic variation in the minimum number of hours that states and other localities mandate students receive. While recent work that attempts to econometrically isolate the causes of achievement supports the importance of intangibles like attitude and disposition, cognition still appears to be the primary determinant of economic success on both individual and national scales (Hanushek 2013; Lundborg, Nystedt, and Rooth 2014). Lundborg, Petter, Paul Nystedt, and Dan-Olof Rooth. "/S+k{zkzq=+W5= `a3.gS'`OW5= `a3.gS'`OW5= `a3.gS'`OV7]{%_9KS?qN4L}KOP[u3#A7]{%_9KS?qN4L$uE[~k#*F0=7D]DV5i G+WOm7fU-I{|6~K~ lN`=P?%Su [ wUfKkhwn0q( ,k}d9Qev[ z+Yh-DDE+W^HwITkrevv:. Falbe, Jennifer, Bernard Rosner, Walter C. Willett, Kendrin R. Sonneville, Frank B. Hu, and Alison E. Field. Future work in the social sciences could integrate these differences in active and passive leisure into theoretical models that seek to explain why life chances so noticeably diverge among children. ! Prior work on leisure time expenditure expectedly illustrates a positive association between sunlight and physical and outdoor activity, with the opposite for sedentary behavior and screen time (Lee, Gino, and Staats 2014; Zivin and Neidell 2014). (2009) find that among adults over 45, sunlight is positively associated with cognitive assessment, but only among individuals suffering from depression. Nikkelen, Sanne W C, Patti M. Valkenburg, Mariette Huizinga, and Brad J. Bushman. Because the NLDAS measures sunlight at the ground level, in practice it also acts as a proxy for broader weather patterns, picking up precipitation, overcast skies, and so on. 2014). These activities were then coded by PSID researchers, and in their raw form may be aggregated to obtain a detailed snapshot of how and where children spent their time. 1991). Outdoor recreation in protected areas negatively impacts wildlife Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies The negative effect of sedentary behavior is less substantial, but still accounts for a reduction of about a fifth of a standard deviation with each additional hour. The first two represent the most obvious potential sources of bias. Weininger, Elliott B., Annette Lareau, and Dalton Conley. Woodcock, Richard W., and Mary B. Johnson. Changes in leisure activities of the elderly due to the COVID-19 in Korea. Before Previous reviews on the effect of recreational activities on nature which bear reference to freshwater systems exists . /Name /im1 2007 Oct 22;7:299. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-7-299. For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription. While we aggregated many individual activities into cohesive categories in the earlier stages of our analyses, we ultimately include only those that exhibit a robust first-stage association with our weather measures in the full specifications. In the social sciences, work tends to focus on time use as outcome, tacitly positioning specific behaviors as meaningfully contributing to the mechanics of social reproduction and individual life chances (Gershenson 2013; Kalil et al. The contribution of the smartphone use to reducing depressive symptoms of Chinese older adults: The mediating effect of social participation. Front Aging Neurosci. 2017). We actually see a small reduction in total screen time, most likely because we code these behaviors as primary rather than secondary activities. Because other imputed stratified estimates (see tables S4S5 in the online appendix) deliver similar or more conservative estimates compared to those using listwise deletion, it is possible that our main race-stratified results are downwardly biased due to nonresponse. Miguel, Edward, Shanker Satyanath, and Ernest Sergenti. Gaps in more passive leisure behaviors patterned on race, sex, and particularly SES as captured by mothers education persist, but seem to have attenuated somewhat. /Type /XObject Behav Sci (Basel). Forests are a natural environment often used for such activities as jogging, hiking, dog walking, mountain biking, or horse riding. A total of 460 participants aged 60-95 years were randomly selected from 21 sites in the USA. and preferences for urban green spaces With the emergence of smartphones and tablets, many children may be consuming media while they are primarily waiting for their parents at school, being driven home, and so forth. We begin by leveraging the longitudinal aspect of the data and employ an individual fixed-effects (FE) approach, which zeros out any time-invariant factors. 8 0 obj Challenges to this assumption include the possibility that season itself is predictive of cognitive performance. *:JZjz ? endstream If children are customarily indoors and relatively inactive whatever their background, why might we see such a difference in effect sizes? Research in the theoretical tradition of Bourdieu has long stressed the importance of activities geared toward curating a disposition suitable for succeeding in school and navigating institutions later in life, like engagement with high art, music, and literature (DiMaggio 1982). In our data, black-white and caregiver college/no college math score gaps are about four-fifths and two-thirds of a standard deviation, respectively, which is broadly consistent with recent estimates of school readiness differences by race and income among similarly aged cohorts (Reardon and Portilla 2015). Matsuoka, Lois Y., Jacobo Wortsman, John G. Haddad, Paul Kolm, and Bruce W. Hollis. WebLoneliness observed to be related to many factors such as depression, desolation, hopelessness, low level of self-esteem, low level of life satisfaction, adaptation difficulty, Negative responses were consistent with the following effects of recreational disturbance at the community, population, or individual (behavioral or physiological) levels: decreased species richness or diversity; decreased survival, reproduction, occurrence, or abundance; behaviors typically assumed to reflect negative responses to anthropogenic 2023 Apr 6;15:1132871. doi: 10.3389/fnagi.2023.1132871. Lee, Jooa J., Francesca Gino, and Bradley R. Staats. The negative effect of sedentary behavior is less substantial, but still accounts for a reduction of about a fifth of a standard deviation with each additional hour. These data are not available from the authors. 13 0 obj In fact, short-duration StS should be included as an important warm-up component before the uptake of recreational sports activities due to its potential positive effect on flexibility and musculotendinous injury We merge a restricted access version of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) Child Development Supplement (CDS), longitudinally collected from 1997 to 2007, with a database of over three million county-day observations of sunlight. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Outdoor recreation in protected areas negatively impacts wildlife PubMed Sample sizes decline slightly in our FE-IV specifications because of a small number of observations with missing geocodes. Another crucially important potential source of bias arises from missing data. We found no noticeable difference in results by excising homework time and confining the measure to the length of the school day alone. endstream For instance, there could in theory be some character trait that prompts a simultaneous migration to the Sunbelt and an outsized growth in cognition, which would bias our estimates upward. (The CDS does include general information on the genre of television programs children consumed, but only for the 1997 and 2002 waves.) These initial advantages extend into college enrollment and degree attainment, with sex-based achievement gaps continuing to widen both within and between birth cohorts (Buchmann and DiPrete 2006). 8600 Rockville Pike 11 0 obj We conclude by descriptively examining time use among a comparably aged subset of the new CDS cohort in 2014 to adolescents in our main data, offering suggestive evidence of recent trend lines in behavior among US children, and providing relevant contemporary context for our findings. Others have also leveraged the random occurrence of weather shocks to explore electoral outcomes (Madestam et al. Note: Cluster-robust standard errors are in parentheses.
